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This Privacy Policy was last updated on September 7, 2009.

totem pole, carved and painted vertical log constructed by the Indians of the Northwest Coast of the United States and Canada. There are six principal kinds of totem pole: memorial, or heraldic, poles, erected when a house changes hands to commemorate the past owner and to identify the present one; grave markers (tombstones); house posts, which support the roof; portal poles, which have a hole through which a person enters the house; welcoming poles, placed at the edge of a body of water to identify the owner of the waterfront; and mortuary poles, in which the remains of the deceased are placed.

The carving on totem poles is very shallow, mainly to emphasize the flat, painted surfaces of the symbolic animals and spirits. Each pole generally has from one (as with a grave marker) to many (as with a family legend) animal images on it, all following very standardized forms, which are familiar to all Indians of the Northwest Coast; beavers, for example, always include cross-hatched tails, and eagles show downward curved beaks,
The word totem is a misnomer, for neither the pole nor the animals depicted on it are worshipped. The significance of the real or mythological animal carved on a totem pole is its identification with the lineage of the head of the household. The animal is displayed as a type of family crest, much as an Englishman might have a lion on his crest or a rancher, a bull on his brand.

More widely known, but in fact far less common, are the elaborately carved tall totem poles that relate an entire family legend in the form of a pictograph. This legend is not something that can be read in the usual sense of the word; only with an understanding of what the symbols mean to the Indians and a knowledge of the history and customs of the clan involved can the pole be interpreted. Each animal or spirit carved on the pole has meaning, and when combined on the pole in sequence, each figure is an important symbol constituent of a story or myth. An exact interpretation of any set of symbols, however, would be almost impossible without the help of a knowledgeable narrator from the family.

The totem pole was also a sign of the owner’s affluence, for hiring an artist to make a pole was an expensive proposition. The carving of totem poles reached its peak in the early and middle 19th century, when the introduction of good metal tools and the wealth gained from the fur trade made it possible for many chiefs to afford these displays. Few examples of this period remain, however, as the moist coastal atmosphere causes the cedar poles to rot and fall in about 60 to 70 years. Richard Fulton

Totonac, Middle American Indian population of eastern central Mexico. Totonac culture is in many ways similar to other Middle American cultures, but it possesses certain features not seen elsewhere in Middle America and more likely related to the circum-Caribbean cultures. The Totonac inhabit two types of environment—high mesa, cool and rainy, and coastal lowland, hot and usually humid— and there are corresponding differences in cultural patterns.

Both groups are agriculturalists, growing corn and squash as staple crops. Lowland Totonac also keep bees, poultry, and hogs and raise a variety of cash crops. Highland Totonac keep poultry and raise some livestock; to augment their rather meager farm production, they also engage in peddling and wage labour in the off-season. Lowland Totonac live primarily in scattered farmhouses, while the highlanders live in central villages with their farmlands around them. Totonac are weak in crafts and tool making: tools are generally purchased from commercial outlets, and only a little weaving and pottery is still practiced by the women.

BR> Highland Totonac wear basically traditional homemade clothing: white cotton shirts and pants for men, black wool skirts and cotton overblouses for women. Lowland men wear similar clothing or commercially produced garments, and women wear cotton skirts and blouses or cotton housedresses.

While each family generally farms its own land or follows a trade, highland men frequently go to the lowlands as seasonal wage labourers on the lowland farms. Communal labour on collectively owned village land is required in both the highlands and the lowlands. A system of ritual kinship is practiced by the Totonac; this institution is related to the compadrazgo or institution of godparent- hood commonly seen in Middle America, but among the Totonac the kinship ties are felt to be primarily between the adults involved rather than between adult and child. The Totonac are nominally Roman Catholic but have adapted Christianity to their traditional pagan beliefs, and many pagan ceremonies and rituals are still practiced. Allen Redmond

Tribe, a group of people speaking a common language, observing uniform rules of social organization, and working together for common purposes such as trade, agriculture, or warfare. Other typical characteristics include a common name, a contiguous territory, a relatively uniform culture or way of life, and a tradition of common descent. Tribes are usually composed of a number of local communities (e.g., bands, villages, or neighbourhoods) and are often aggregated in clusters of a higher order called nations. The term is seldom applied to societies that have achieved a strictly territorial organization in large states but is usually confined to groups whose unity is based primarily upon a sense of extended kinship ties, It is no longer used for kin groups in the strict sense, such as clans.

All of the elements in the above definition are subject to exceptions. Thus the Amba of Uganda are considered one tribe though they speak two mutually unintelligible languages; the Zuni “tribe” comprises only a single community; the Kiowa Apache constitute one band of the larger Kiowa tribe; the Dorobo tribe of Kenya live scattered among the Nandi and Masai, for whom they hunt and perform ritual services.

The criterion of political integration, in particular, is inapplicable to many primitive peoples (e.g., of Australia, Melanesia, Amazonia, and western North America) among whom each community may be politically autonomous. Anthropologists, nevertheless, are accustomed to divide such peoples into “tribes” on the basis of linguistic and cultural resemblances.

Sometimes a cluster of independent local groups forms an intermarrying unit or maintains peaceful trade relations or is unified by a common cult or age-grade organization, despite the lack of political integration; but oftentimes all that distinguishes it from other clusters is a common dialect and culture. For this reason there has been a discernible recent trend toward employing the term tribe for any group that can be isolated as the carrier of a distinctive culture, at least in the absence of territorial states. Where such states have developed, it is preferable to use the term nation to designate the comparable but larger culture-bearing groups. Ivan Prostorovski

The technology for rearming aircraft with weapons in midair might soon be a reality. This revolutionary technology would enable combat missions, currently requiring dozens of aircraft, to be performed by very few, and to carry out numerous missions by unmanned combat aircraft without returning to base. Airborne rearming might prove to be as significant as the airborne refueling revolution that occurred half a century ago.

KB-29M performing mid-air refuling (Credit: U.S. Air Force Museum)
In 1921, Alexander P. de Seversky, a Russian pilot who immigrated to the U.S., was the first to apply for and receive a patent for midair refueling. Two years later, the U.S. army began operational testing of midair refueling, but although successful, another decade passed before the necessary technology and technique were perfected and midair refueling became routine. World War II witnessed an even greater improvement in the field of midair refueling technology, but the increase in internal aircraft fuel capacities reduced the need for this technology at the time. With the introduction of “fuel-hungry” jet-powered bombers in the post-war years, the requirement for aerial refueling became apparent once again. Since existing refueling methods proved inadequate for refueling jet bombers, the Boeing Company began testing the "Boeing boom" system, in which a wide pipe connected to the rear of a modified B-29 fitted with small wings, was lowered and "flown" to a connector on the receiver aircraft. This new system permitted the transfer of over six-times as much fuel per minute and since the 1950’s, further improvements to the boom system have increased its efficiency and safety. But although computers and a variety of sensors were integrated in recent years, the refueling system remains humanly-operated. Several companies world-wide are developing automatic technologies for aerial refueling, designed to further increase the safety of this complex procedure.

Whereas aerial refueling increases the range of an aircraft almost indefinitely, bombers still must return to base for rearming as they are limited in the amount of weapons they carry. However, when the target is situated hundreds of miles away from a friendly base, precious time and resources are lost on flights to base for rearming. Furthermore, in some cases the political situation precludes the use of friendly military bases near the operating theater.

Bombs inside a rearming plane
To resolve these problems, the Israeli company Far Technologies developed the Airborne Rearming System (ABRA; currently patent pending) in conjunction with the Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI) engineering group that conducted preliminary system design. The ABRA concept is similar in many respects to airborne refueling, with a number of notable modifications. Far Technologies' system comprises a rearming plane (a C-130, C-130c, C-17, or even a C-5) with an internal bomb storage area and loading device consisting of a large aft door with a modified remote-driven robotic arm (boom) equipped with a day-night camera as well as sensors, and, on the attack aircraft, a special smart pylon to receive the arms from the boom. Each C-130c would be able to carry a payload of up to sixteen 2,000 lb (907 kg) bombs (such as an MK-84), while larger aircraft would easily be able to rearm a full squadron of planes. (A C-17 could potentially carry up to seventy MK-84s and a C-5, around 100.)

Rearming mechanism
At present, manned attack missions may take up to several hours, and most of this time is spent flying to and from the target. By employing a refueling and rearming aircraft positioned 50 to 150 miles from the target, the efficiency of an air strike could be doubled with only a slight increase in time and flight distance. While manned aircraft could benefit from airborne rearming in certain scenarios, unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs) currently under development could theoretically gain much more from such a technology. Unlike manned aircraft, UCAVs can currently stay aloft for days, and in the future, weeks or even months at a time, performing countless refueling and rearming rounds. Such a capability does not yet exist and would require some level of automatic operation, similar to that currently under development for aerial refueling; if successful, however, it would dramatically increase the flexibility of air power utilization in future conflicts.

A comprehensive study, conducted by Professor Asher Tishler from Tel Aviv University, on the logistical, economic, and operational aspects of ABRA outlined a number of benefits over conventional rearming: (1) the number of bombs delivered in a given time frame could be quadrupled in certain situations, (2) a great cost reduction would be incurred, due to the reduction in the number of aircraft needed to perform each mission, (3) an operational capability could be maintained even while airfields and carriers are under attack, (4) a reduction in aircraft response time whenever a new target is located, and, although not explicitly mentioned in Tishler's report, (5) the potential for aerial conquest, in which an aircraft (typically a UAV or UCAV) occupies a specific area of the enemy's airspace and maintains it for an unlimited period to observe enemy movements and eliminate all relevant targets in that area.

TFOT recently interviewed Nir Padan, CEO of Far Technologies as well as a distinguished Israeli test pilot, who elaborated on ABRA. antike parusto